Notes on Dhamma

The Bodhisatta Path and Non-path

In the article, Where the Path Divides: Early Buddhism and the Bodhisattva Ideal, the venerable Bhikkhu Bodhi asks the following questions:

In the Nikayas we often see monks approach the Buddha and ask for advice on how to attain arahantship. So it seems reasonable to suppose that those who aspired to Buddhahood would have done the same and that the Buddha would have responded in a fitting way. The question then arises why we don’t find even a trace of teachings on the bodhisattva path in the archaic texts. If there is a causal background to the realization of enlightenment as a buddha rather than as an arahant, why are the Nikayas silent about it? Why don’t they point to the possibility of buddhahood itself as an object of aspiration? Why do they include no description of a bodhisattva career?

Since bodhisattahood is only a means to the attainment of Buddhahood, I take the venerable Bhikkhu Bodhi’s question about the bodhisatta path to be referring to the path for the realization of awakening as a sammāsambuddha (supremely awakened one). In that case, we do not find anyone approaching the Buddha in the Nikayas to ask about how to become a sammāsambuddha because it is common knowledge in the Nikayas that the sambodhi (supreme awakening) that the bodhisatta is destined for, is no different from the sambodhi that the sotāpannā (stream-enterer) is destined for.

Bodhi means awakened and satta means a being. So a bodhisatta is an awakened being–an ariya (a noble one), and not a puthujjana (commoner). A “puthujjana bodhisatta” is simply a contradiction in terms. A bodhisatta is defined as one who is just an awakened being, not yet supremely awakened to sambodhi (sambodhā anabhisambuddhassa bodhisattasseva).

In the janavasabha sutta (DN 18), the Buddha defines sotāpannas as:

tiṇṇaṃ saññojanānaṃ parikkhayā sotāpannā avinipātadhammā niyatā sambodhiparāyaṇāti.

From the complete extinction of the three fetters, they are sotāpannas, not subject to the woeful plane, on a fixed course, destined for sambodhi.

In the same text, the venerable Ananda expresses where the Buddha attained his sambodhi as follows:

bhagavato kho pana sambodhi magadhesu. yattha kho bhagavato sambodhi magadhesu, kathaṃ tattha bhagavā māgadhake paricārake abbhatīte kālakate upapattīsu na byākareyya?

Besides, the Auspicious One [attained] sambodhi in Magadha. [Since] the place where the Auspicious One [attained] sambodhi was in Magadha, why wouldn’t the Auspicious One declare the birth of the Magadhan disciples who have died and passed away in that place?
–DN 18

Thus, both a sekha (a noble disciple who is at least a sotāpannā but not yet an arahant) and a bodhisatta have sambodhi as their destination.

In the satthusāsana sutta (AN 7.83), the Buddha declares that any teaching that does not lead exclusively to sambodhi is not the Teacher’s instructions.

In whatever Dhamma you, O Upali, may know, these dhammas do not lead exclusively to attenuation, to fading away, to cessation, to peace, to supreme knowledge, to sambodhi, to nibbana, you should bear in mind, O Upali, “definitely this is not Dhamma, this is not vinaya, this is not the Teacher’s instructions.”

In whatever Dhamma you, O Upali, may know, these dhammas lead exclusively to attenuation, to fading away, to cessation, to peace, to supreme knowledge, to sambodhi, to nibbana, you should bear in mind, O Upali, “definitely this is Dhamma, this is vinaya, this is the Teacher’s instructions.”

Thus, it is not the case that the Buddha was silent in the Nikayas about the Sammāsambuddha Path. On the contrary, all he taught was the Sammāsambuddha Path. Although all those who attain sambodhi attain sammāsambodhi, which is also called sammavimutti (right liberation), and are also regarded as Tathagatas, the designations Sammāsambuddha and Tathagata are reserved for the Buddha out of respect by his disciples because he is the declarer of the path undeclared before. In the sambodhi sutta (SN 22.58), the Buddha declares that the difference in awakening between him as a sammāsambuddha arahant and a wisdom liberated arahant is that:

The Tathagata, O bhikkhus, the Arahant, the Supremely Awakened One, is the originator of the path unarisen [before], the generator of the path ungenerated [before], the declarer of the path undeclared [before], the knower of the path, the comprehender of the path, the expert of the path. And his disciples, O bhikkhus, at present, dwell as followers of the path, [having become] endowed with it afterwards. This, O bhikkhus, is the distinction, this is the disparity, this is the difference between the Tathagata, the Arahant, the Supremely Awakened One, and the wisdom liberated bhikkhu.

Arahants designated as sammāsambuddhas and paccekabuddhas (a Buddha who does not establish the four assemblies of bhikkhus, bhikkhunis, male lay disciples and female lay disciples) only arise from the plane of the true persons (sappurisabhūmiṃ) or the plane of the ariyas. It is not possible for Buddhas to arise from the plane of puthujjanas ( puthujjanabhūmiṃ). The Buddha declares three pathways for surmounting the plane of puthujjanas to enter the plane of the ariyas in the tissa sutta (AN 7.56). Through one’s faith in the Buddha’s teaching on impermanence, one enters the plane of the ariyas as a saddhānusārī (faith follower, SN 25.10); through one’s learning and submission to the Buddha’s teaching on impermanence based on a measure of wisdom, one enters the plane of the ariyas as a dhammānusārī (dhamma follower, SN 25.10); through one’s abiding in the signless liberation of mind, one enters the plane of the ariyas as an animittavihārī (one who dwells in the signless, AN 7.56). In the gilānā sutta (AN 3.22), the Buddha compares those who enter the plane of the ariyas as saddhānusārī and dhammānusārī to the types of patients who either recover from their sickness only if they get a competent nurse (the Buddha) or a suitable medicine and food (the Dhamma proclaimed by the Buddha), not if they don’t get it. Given that the Buddha only declares these three pathways to entering the plane of the ariyas, those who enter the plane of the ariyas through the discovery of the signless liberation of mind (animittavihārī) must correspond to the types of patients who can recover from their illness even if they don’t get a competent nurse or a suitable medicine and food. It is only by having entered the plane of the ariyas that one has gained the straightened view in conformity with the ariya right view needed to make the breakthrough to the four noble truths to enable the attainment of sambodhi. It is clear from the Buddha’s teachings that the attainment of sambodhi is only possible for one who has made the breakthrough to the four noble truths as declared in the kūṭāgāra sutta (SN 56.44):

Indeed, O bhikkhus, he who might say thus: “I, not having made the breakthrough to the noble truth of suffering as it has come to be, not having made the breakthrough to the noble truth of the origination of suffering as it has come to be, not having made the breakthrough to the noble truth of the cessation of suffering as it has come to be, not having made the breakthrough to the noble truth of the path leading to the cessation of suffering as it has come to be, I will rightly make an end of suffering,” this possibility is not to be found.

Once one makes the breakthrough to the four noble truths, one is said to be accomplished in view (diṭṭhisampanno). Arahants designated as sammāsambuddhas and paccekabuddhas who arise in the human world for their final birth from among the ariya disciples of previous Buddhas who are accomplished in view are described in the nitthaṃ sutta (AN 10.63) as follows:

Whoever, O bhikkhus has reached certainty about me, all those are accomplished in view. Of those who are accomplished in view, five reach perfection in this world. Five reach perfection having left this world. Which five reach perfection in this world? The seven-lives-at-most [attainer], clan-to-clan [attainer], one seed [attainer], a sakadagami, one who attains arahantship in just this very life. These five reach perfection here in this world.

What happens when sotāpannas return to this world when it is not their final birth is described by Sakka in the sakkapaṇha sutta (DN 21):

Remaining just here,
for me existing as a deva (celestial) being;
yet gained is renewed life [the ariya birth] for me,
you should know thus, dear Sir.

Seeing this first benefit, venerable sir, I declare such an acquisition of feeling, an acquisition of happiness.

Having passed from the deva group,
having abandoned the non-human life;
unconfused, I will enter a womb,
where my mind delights.

Seeing this second benefit, venerable sir, I declare such an acquisition of feeling, an acquisition of happiness.

That I, with unconfused wisdom,
dwelling delighting in the Instructions;
will dwell by the know-how,
contemplative and mindful.

Seeing this third benefit, venerable sir, I declare such an acquisition of feeling, an acquisition of happiness.

And faring by the know-how,
if there will be sambodhi;
I will dwell as one with final knowledge,
and just that will be the end.

Seeing this fourth benefit, venerable sir, I declare such an acquisition of feeling, an acquisition of happiness.

Having passed away from the human group,
having abandoned the human life;
I will again become a deva,
in the highest deva world [suddhāvāsa (pure abodes)].

Seeing this fifth benefit, venerable sir, I declare such an acquisition of feeling, an acquisition of happiness.

Those that are more sublime than the devas,
the glorious Akaniṭṭha [realm];
that will be my abode,
my final state of being.

Seeing this sixth benefit, venerable sir, I declare such an acquisition of feeling, an acquisition of happiness.

Seeing these six benefits, venerable sir, I declare such an acquisition of feeling, an acquisition of happiness.

So Sakka, being a sotāpanna, foresees either attaining arahantship or anāgāmī (non-returner) in his next human birth, by relying on the know-how (ñāya [paṭiccasamuppāda] - see pañcaverabhaya sutta SN 12.41) that he has awakened to. What about a sakadāgāmī (once-returner) or a sotāpannā who returns to the human world for their last birth? They are still born with unconfused mindfulness and the wisdom of the know-how that can discriminate between what is the path and the non-path, but they have to rediscover the sammāsamādhi equipped with the seven path factors, since the noble eight-fold path is lost. A good example is given by our Buddha Gotama when he arose in the human world for his final birth. The Bodhisatta Gotama declared at the time of his birth that "This is my final birth", without having attained sambodhi. That statement only holds true for a sotāpannā on his final birth or a sakadāgāmī who have returned to this human world and is therefore guaranteed that this is his final birth.

In the mahāsaccaka sutta (MN 36), the Bodhisatta Gotama’s recollection of his attainment of the first jhana when he was a child is what led him to rediscover the sāmmasamādhi equipped with the seven path factors that allowed him to attain sambodhi.

But I know from experience while sitting under the cool shade of a rose apple tree when my father the Sakyan was working, I entered upon and dwelled in the pleasure and happiness born of seclusion, the first jhana. Could this be the path to full awakening? Following that memory the knowledge occurred: “This is the path to full awakening.”

The jhana is only a path to sambodhi for the one who is endowed with the know-how, one on the plane of the ariyas. Because of this it is said in the pañcalacaṇḍa sutta (SN 2.7):

Indeed an opening in the midst of confinement,
has been discovered by the one of broad wisdom;
the Buddha who awakened to jhana,
The sage, the secluded chief bull.

Even in the midst of confinement they find it,
the Dhamma for the attainment of Nibbāna;
those who have gained mindfulness,
those rightly well attained to samadhi.
–SN 2.7

The Bodhisatta Gotama awakened to the full potential of the jhanas because as an ariya, he was endowed with the know-how to make use of the jhanas for the attainment of sambodhi. Even as a householder, the Bodhisatta Gotama acknowledged being an ariya, not a puthujjana, when he said in the sukhumāla sutta, (AN 3.36):

I was delicate, O bhikkhus, supremely delicate, excessively delicate. Indeed at my father’s residence, these lotus ponds were built purposely for me. In one entirely white lotuses were planted, in one red lotuses, in one blue lotuses. I, O bhikkhus, did not wear sandalwood that were not from Kasi. My turbans, O bhikkhus, were from Kasi, my jackets were from Kasi, my inner robes were from Kasi, my outer robes were from Kasi. A white parasol, O bhikkhus, was held over me day and night [with the thought]: “Let neither cold, nor heat, nor grass, nor dust, nor dew touch him.” For me, O bhikkhus, there were three mansions: one for the cold season, one for the hot season, one for the rainy season. During the four months of the rainy season, O bhikkhus, I amused myself in the rainy season mansion with entirely female musicians without descending to the lower floors of the mansion. And just as, O bhikkhus, at other residences, servants, labourers and employees were offered meal of rice husk porridge accompanied with sour gruel, in exactly the same way, O bhikkhus, at my father’s residence, servants, labourers and employees were offered meal of fine rice accompanied with meat.

Of me being endowed with such great fortune, O bhikkhus, with such delicacy, it occurred to me: “For the Dhamma-deaf puthujjana, himself being liable to old age, not exempt [from old age], having seen others who are old, becomes troubled, humiliated, disgusted, having overlooked his own [liability]. But if I, being liable to old age, not exempt [from old age], having seen others who are old, were to become troubled, humiliated, disgusted, that would not be proper for me.” Of me, O bhikkhus, reflecting thus, I abandoned all the youth’s intoxication with youth.
–AN 3.36

And in the bhayabherava sutta (MN 4), the Buddha acknowledges being an ariya as follows:

For me, O Brahmin, this occurred: “Whatever samanas or brahmanas make use of secluded dwellings in remote jungle thickets in the forest with poor wisdom and stupidity, then indeed with poor wisdom and stupidity as cause, those venerable samanas and brahmanas invoke unskillful fear and dread. But I am not one who makes use of secluded dwellings in remote jungle thickets in the forest with poor wisdom and stupidity. I am one who is endowed with wisdom. Indeed those ariyas who make use of secluded dwellings in remote jungle thickets in the forest endowed with wisdom, I am a certain one among them. Seeing this endowment with wisdom within myself, O Brahmin, I dwelt even more unafraid in the forest.”
–MN 4

This is the ariya wisdom, the wisdom that sees the four noble truths. We also get a glimpse of the Bodhisatta Gotama’s progress towards sambodhi as an ariya in the kālī sutta (AN 10.26):

Some samanas and brahmanas, O sister, actualized the earth kasina as the highest goal. The Auspicious One understood with supreme knowledge, the extent to which that earth kasina is supreme. Having understood that with supreme knowledge, the Auspicious one saw the beginning, saw the danger, saw the escape, saw the knowledge and vision of the path and the non-path. [With] his vision of the beginning as cause, vision of danger as cause, vision of escape as cause, knowledge and vision of the path and the non-path as cause, he has known the attainment of the goal, the peace of the heart.
–AN 10.26

Because as an ariya, the Bodhisatta Gotama possessed the knowledge and vision of the path and the non-path, he knew that even attainments of the domain of nothingness and the domain of neither-perception-nor-non-perception which surpass the kasina attainments, were also not the supreme goal as taught by his former teachers Alara Kalama and Udaka Ramaputta, and therefore was able to surmount these attainments and awaken to sambodhi.

Paramis: The Bait of Māra

Nowadays, the lust for the gain and honor of a Buddha, or the aversion towards the noble truth of suffering, or the delusion about what is the path and non-path for the attainment of sammāsambodhi, all in the guise of great compassion, has led many modern day buddhists to become gullible to believe the teachings of their traditions about different paths for the attainment of sambodhi that were not taught by the Buddha.

The major Buddhist traditions have come up with their own paths to liberation. The Theravada tradition prescribes the sixteen insight knowledges that they have worked out as the path for the attainment of the fruits of the Buddha’s teaching. Their followers who are not able to distinguish between what is the Buddha’s teaching and what is not the Buddha’s teaching undertake this path prescribed by their tradition, hoping to reap the fruits of the Buddha’s teachings, such as sotāpatti, sakadāgāmī, anāgāmī or arahantship. When they fail in their efforts, instead of reaching the conclusion that their failure to attain any fruits of the Buddha’s teaching is perhaps because the path prescribed by their tradition is not the path that leads to the attainment of fruits of the Buddha’s teaching, they adopt the view of their traditions that it is because they have not fulfilled some paramis (perfections) in past lives, that is why they are unable to attain any fruits of the Buddha’s teachings from their efforts in this present life. And so instead of redirecting their efforts to following the Buddha’s instructions for the attainments of fruits, they abandon their efforts and set about fulfilling the paramis prescribed by their tradition. The Theravada tradition prescribes making a vow to fulfill ten paramis for different countless lifetimes depending on the type of arahantship one aspires to, whether sammāsambuddha arahantship, paccekabuddha arahantship, chief disciple arahantship or regular disciple arahantship. Likewise, the Mahayana tradition proposes making a vow to fulfill six paramis for Buddhahood.

The items of these paramis are all based on qualities that the Buddha taught for the realization of the fruits of his teachings in this life so they are all excellent qualities. However instead of making use of these qualities to realize the fruits of the Buddha’s teachings in this life, the traditions convince their followers that only those who had made a vow to undertake the fulfillment of these paramis for countless past lives are able to realize the fruits of the Buddha’s teachings in this life, and so if they too make a vow to undertake these paramis for countless future lives, then they will be able to realize the fruits of the Buddha’s teachings in some future life. In the yavakalāpi sutta (SN 35.248), the Buddha advises against such undertakings for future becoming as a trap of Māra:

Suppose O bhikkhus, that a sheaf of barley were to be laid down at the cross roads. Then six men would come with flail in hand. They would strike that sheaf of barley with the six flails. Thus indeed, O bhikkhus, that sheaf of barley would be well-beaten being struck with the six flails. Then a seventh man would come with flail in hand. He would strike that sheaf of barley with the seventh flail. Thus indeed O bhikkhus, that sheaf of barley would be even more thoroughly well-beaten being struck with the seventh flail.

So too, O bhikkhus, the Dhamma-deaf puthujjana is struck in the eye with agreeable and disagreeable forms, struck in the ear with agreeable and disagreeable sounds, struck in the nose with agreeable and disagreeable aromas, struck in the tongue with agreeable and disagreeable flavors, struck in the body with agreeable and disagreeable tangibles, struck in the mind with agreeable and disagreeable dhammas. If, O bhikkhus, that Dhamma-deaf puthujjana is intent on a future renewal of being, then indeed, O bhikkhus, that empty man is more thoroughly well-beaten, just as, O bhikkhus, that sheaf of barley having been even more thoroughly well-beaten, being struck with the seventh flail...

Conceiving, O bhikkhus, one is in the bondage of Māra. Not conceiving, one is freed from the Evil One.

“I am.” O bhikkhus, this is a conceiving. “This I am.” This is a conceiving. “Will be.” This is a conceiving. “Will not be.” This is a conceiving. “Will be possessed of form.” This is a conceiving. “Will be formless.” This is a conceiving. “Will be percipient.” This is a conceiving. “Will be non-percipient.” This is a conceiving. “Will be neither percipient nor non-percipient.” This is a conceiving. To conceive is a disease, to conceive is a tumor, to conceive is a dart. Therefore, O bhikkhus, “We will dwell with a mind free from conceivings.” Thus indeed for you, O bhikkhus, should it be trained.
–SN 35.248

Thus, when one sets one’s mind on fulfilling some paramis for becoming a Buddha or some other arahant in the future, one is hopelessly in the bondage of Māra and continues to wander on in saṃsāra with no end in sight. As stated in the first verse of the dhammapada balavagga (Dhp 60):

Long is the night for the wakeful,
long is a yojana for the tired;
long is saṃsāra for fools,
not discriminatively knowing the true Dhamma.
–Dhp 60

In the suttas, the Buddha makes it clear that the Dhamma that he teaches belongs to what can be seen in this life (sandiṭṭhiko), not involving time, (akāliko), inviting eye witness (ehipassiko), leading onwards, (opanayiko), to be personally experienced by the wise, each one for oneself (paccataṃ veditabbo viññūhi). Even his teachings about the past and the future are based on knowledge and vision of the past and the future in the present, and so belongs to what is visible here. In the cūḷasakuludāyi sutta, (MN 79), he says:

Udāyin, if someone should recollect his manifold past lives, that is, one birth, two births … thus, with their aspects and particulars, should he recollect his manifold past lives, then either he might ask me a question about the past or I might ask him a question about the past, and he might satisfy my mind with his answer to my question or I might satisfy his mind with my answer to his question.

If someone with the divine eye, which is purified and surpasses the human, should see beings passing away and reappearing, inferior and superior, fair and ugly, fortunate and unfortunate … and understand how beings pass on according to their actions, then either he might ask me a question about the future or I might ask him a question about the future, and he might satisfy my mind with his answer to my question or I might satisfy his mind with my answer to his question.

But let be the past, Udāyin, let be the future. I shall teach you the Dhamma: “This comes to be when there is this herein; this arises with the arising of this. This does not come to be when there is not this herein; this ceases with the cessation of this.”
–MN 79

The Buddha interrogates proponents of doctrines that proclaim a path to liberation based on what was done in the past similar to the teaching that those who realize liberation have fulfilled paramis in the past. For example in the devadaha sutta (MN 101), since the Niganthas teach the termination of kamma accumulated in past lives as a path to liberation from suffering, the fact that their practice does not allow any way of measuring their progress towards liberation from suffering means that they teach a path to that which they do not know, to that which they do not see.

But because, O friend Niganthas, you do not know: “Indeed, we were in the past. It is not the case that we were not.” You do not know: “Indeed we did evil kamma in the past. It is not the case that we did not.” You do not know: “We did such or such evil kamma in the past.” You do not know: “So much suffering has been worn away or so much suffering remains to be worn away, or certainly by the wearing away of so much suffering, all suffering will be worn away.” You do not know the abandoning of unwholesome dhammas and the taking up of wholesome dhammas in this very life. That being so, it would not be proper for the venerable Niganthas to declare: “Whatever this individual person experiences, whether pleasure, pain or neither pain nor pleasure, all that is caused by what was done in the past...
–MN 101

This same interrogation applies to proponents of the path of paramis who claim that only those who have fulfilled paramis in the past can become liberated, since they do not know whether those supposedly on the path of paramis have made a vow in the past, how much paramis have already been accumulated in the past and how much paramis remain to be accumulated so as to say, certainly, by the accumulation of this much remaining paramis, all the paramis will be fulfilled. The Buddha compares this way of teaching to a file of blind men in the tevijja sutta (DN 13).

Indeed O Vasettha, that those triple-knowledge brahmins [could] teach a path to union with that which they do not know, that which they do not see, [claiming]: “This is the only straight path, this is the direct path leading to emancipation, delivering the doer thereof to union with Brahma,” this possibility is not to be found. Just as, O Vasettha, a line of blind men go on in succession holding on to each other, the first one does not see, the middle one too does not see, the last one too does not see. So too, O Vasettha, the statements of the triple-knowledge brahmins seem to me like a line of blind men; the first one does not see, the middle one too does not see, the last one too does not see. These statements of the triple-knowledge brahmins turn out to be mere speech, turn out to be mere words, turn out to be simply empty, turn out to be simply hollow.
–DN 13

The ability to put the ripening of accumulated good kamma on hold to enable continuous accumulation of them until one fulfills one’s paramis is put into question by the Buddha when he questions the Niganthas further:

Thus apparently, O friend Niganthas, it cannot be gained thus: “By this exertion and striving, let whichever kamma is to be experienced in this life be experienced in the after-life.” It cannot be gained thus: “By this exertion and striving, let whichever kamma is to be experienced in the after-life be experienced in this life.” It cannot be gained thus: “By this exertion and striving, let whichever kamma is to be experienced as pleasant be experienced as painful.” It cannot be gained thus: “By this exertion and striving, let whichever kamma is to be experienced as painful be experienced as pleasant.” It cannot be gained thus: “By this exertion and striving, let whichever kamma is to be experienced when ripened be experienced when unripened.” It cannot be gained thus: “By this exertion and striving, let whichever kamma is to be experienced when unripened be experienced when ripened.” It cannot be gained thus: “By this exertion and striving, let whichever kamma is to be experienced substantially be experienced slightly.” It cannot be gained thus: “By this exertion and striving, let whichever kamma is to be experienced slightly be experienced substantially.” It cannot be gained thus: “By this exertion and striving, let whichever kamma is to be experienced not be experienced.” It cannot be gained thus: “By this exertion and striving, let whichever kamma is not to be experienced be experienced.” That being so, the venerable Niganthas exertion is fruitless, their striving is fruitless.

So the Buddha puts into question whether it is possible to manipulate kamma to not ripen until one fulfills one’s accumulation of paramis. But suppose it is granted that it is possible. According to the sukhita sutta (SN 15.12), since they are all mundane kamma, it will be difficult to find any being who has not fulfilled them at some point or another in this long saṃsāra without a discoverable beginning.

This saṃsāra is without a discoverable beginning. A first point is not discerned of beings roaming and wandering on, hindered by ignorance and fettered by thirsting. Whichever, O bhikkhus, happy and fortunate one you may see, you must reach the conclusion: “For us too, we have undergone such form [of happiness and fortune] on this long path.” What is the reason for that? [Because] O bhikkhus, this saṃsāra is without a discoverable beginning. A first point is not discerned of beings roaming and wandering on, hindered by ignorance and fettered by thirsting. Just this much is enough to attenuate all saṅkhāras, enough to fade them away, enough to be liberated from them.
–SN 15.12

Thus, if it is not possible to manipulate kamma to not ripen until one fulfills one’s accumulation of paramis, then undertaking the fulfillment of paramis is fruitless. If it is possible, then chances are that one has attained it in the past and the fact that one is still here roaming in saṃsāra means it is fruitless.

The Buddha makes it clear that the attainment of fruits in the Dhamma and discipline that he proclaims is based on entering the noble eight-fold path as the root source of liberation, instead of vows or aspirations in the bhumija sutta (MN 126):

If, having made an aspiration, or having made no aspiration, or having made both an aspiration and no aspiration, or having made neither an aspiration nor non-aspiration, one leads the life of purity not [based on] the root cause [for purity], one is incapable of attaining any fruit. On the other hand, if, having made an aspiration, or having made no aspiration, or having made both an aspiration and no aspiration, or having made neither an aspiration nor non-aspiration, one leads the life of purity [based on] the root cause [for purity], one is capable of attaining fruits.
–MN 126

From where did these teachings on fulfilling paramis in order to attain liberation originate? Perhaps a misunderstanding about the lakkhaṇa sutta (DN 30), where the Buddha describes what past kamma led to the auspicious signs of a great man and the corresponding qualities of a Buddha, is what led to the idea of fulfilling paramis as a requirement for liberation. However, the traditional elders who proposed these teachings on paramis overlooked a very broad hint given by the Buddha in the lakkhaṇa sutta that he was a sekha under a previous Buddha in order to perform the kamma of giving the Dhamma offering, and the kamma of acting for the security from bondage and prosperity in faith, virtue, learning, generosity and wisdom of others, since these two types of kamma are only accessible to sekhas:

Also whatever former birth, O bhikkhus, former existence, former abode, that the Tathagata, while being a human being, was one who gave the Dhamma offering for many people, taught many people, a speaker of speech connected with meaning, connected with Dhamma, bringing welfare and happiness to living beings...

Being a Buddha, what does he gain?

He is the foremost, best, chief, highest, most excellent of all beings.

Being a Buddha, this is what he gains.

This is the meaning of what the Auspicious One said. Thus, this was said there:

Formerly utterances connected with meaning and Dhamma,
a teacher arousing many people;
he was a bringer of welfare and happiness to living beings,
one who offered the Dhamma offering, free from miserliness...

In the brāhmaṇa sutta (IT 100), the Buddha explains what is the Dhamma offering:

This indeed was said by the Auspicious One, said by the Arahant, as heard by me.

I, O bhikkhus, am a brahmin, ever devoted to [granting] requests, open handed, bearer of my last body, the unsurpassed doctor and surgeon. You are my own sons, born from my mouth, born from the Dhamma, created by the Dhamma, heirs to the Dhamma, not heirs in material things.

There are these two givings, O bhikkhus, the giving of material things and the giving of the Dhamma. Of these two givings, O bhikkhus, this is the foremost, namely, the giving of the Dhamma.

There are these two sharings, O bhikkhus, the sharing of material things and the sharing of the Dhamma. Of these two sharings, O bhikkhus, this is the foremost, namely, the sharing of the Dhamma.

There are these two assistances, O bhikkhus, the assistance with material things and the assistance with the Dhamma. Of these two assistances, O bhikkhus, this is the foremost, namely, the assistance with the Dhamma.

There are these two offerings, O bhikkhus, the offering of material things and the offering of the Dhamma. Of these two offerings, O bhikkhus, this is the foremost, namely, the offering of the Dhamma.

This is the meaning of what the Auspicious One said. Thus, this was said there:

The one free from miserliness who offered the Dhamma offering,
the Tathagata, compassionate to all beings;
beings venerate the one who has crossed over being,
that such-like one, best among devas and humans.

“This too is the meaning of what was said by the Auspicious One. Thus was heard by me.”
–IT 100

The other kamma performed by the Buddha in his past life that is only accessible to sekhas is the following:

Also whatever former birth, O bhikkhus, former existence, former abode, that the Tathagata, while being a human being, desiring the benefit of many people, wishing for their welfare, wishing for their comfort, wishing for their security from bondage [thinking], “How can they prosper in faith, prosper in virtue, prosper in learning, prosper in generosity, prosper in Dhamma, prosper in wisdom, prosper in wealth and grains, prosper in fields and lands, prosper in the two-footed and four-footed, prosper in sons and wives, prosper in slaves, workers and employees, prosper in relatives, prosper in friends, prosper in kinsmen, by my [help]?”...

Being a Buddha, what does he gain?

He is not liable to decline. He does not decline in faith, virtue, learning, generosity and wisdom. He does not decline in all accomplishments.

Being a Buddha, this is what he gains.

It is clear from the daḷiddo sutta (SN 11.14) that those who are endowed with faith, virtue, learning, generosity and wisdom are sekhas. And so to act for the increase in faith, virtue, learning, generosity and wisdom of others, one has to possess faith, virtue, learning, generosity and wisdom oneself. Also to act for the benefit of security from bondage of others, one has to possess some level of security from bondage oneself.

The Buddha clarifies in the sallekha sutta (MN 8) with the famous simile of one sinking in the mud, that it is not possible for one sinking in the mud to help another who is sinking in the mud. Likewise in his teachings, it is not possible that one who is himself untamed, undisciplined, not attained nibbana, can tame another, discipline another, or help another to attain nibbana; but it is possible that one who is himself tamed, disciplined, attained nibbana, can tame another, discipline another, and help another to attain nibbana.

In the bahujanahita sutta (IT 84), the Buddha singles out three types of persons who are capable of giving the Dhamma offering and acting for the benefit of security from bondage of others, as those who arise in the world for the welfare of many, for the happiness of many, out of compassion for the world, for the good, welfare, and happiness of devas and humans. They are a Buddha, an arahant and a sekha.

Indeed the Teacher, the great sage, is first in the world, [then] there is his disciple, one attained to self-composure; then another too is the sekha, following the way, one of great learning, accomplished in virtue.

These three are the foremost among devas and humans, luminaries, they cause the Dhamma to appear; they open the door to the deathless, causing to free many people from bondage.
–IT 84

Only these three types of persons have arrived at the true Dhamma ( saddhamma) and can distinguish the true Dhamma from the counterfeit dhamma (patirupaka dhamma). They are the only ones who are capable of explaining the well-proclaimed Dhamma that is auspicious in the beginning, auspicious in the middle, auspicious in the end, with the correct meaning and phrasing, proclaiming the life of purity that is utterly complete and pure. They have pulled themselves out of the mud and stand on firm ground unsullied by the mud. It is only they who understand the difficulties and subtleties involved in getting out of the mud and can therefore guide others out of the mud.

In the ghaṭīkāra sutta (MN 81), the Buddha gives a past life story ( jātaka) of a time when he was a brahmin youth by the name of Jotipala where his best friend who was an anāgāmī named Ghatikara the potter, desiring to give him the gift of the Dhamma, insisted that they visit the Buddha Kassapa. Jotipala had no faith or interest in seeing the Buddha Kassapa who he denigrated as the bald-headed counterfeit samaṇa, but his best friend Ghartikara insisted, threatening to drag him by the hair to the presence of the Buddha Kassapa if needed. Jotipala gave in to his friend Ghatikara’s insistence to go and visit the Buddha Kassapa after his shock that his best friend Ghatikara would go to the extent of grabbing him by the hair after they had bathed their heads, even though Ghatikara was considered to be of inferior birth. After hearing a Dhamma teaching from the Buddha Kassapa, Jotipala gained the type of faith of a saddhānusārī. His faith in the Buddha Kassapa’s Dhamma was so strong that he wanted to gain the going forth and the higher ordination right then and there in the presence of the Buddha Kassapa. He did not even want to go home to settle any affairs. It is most likely during his discipleship under the Buddha Kassapa that he became a sekha in order to be able to perform these two kammas that are only accesssible to sekhas.

Given how difficult it was for the anāgāmī Ghatikara to convince his best friend to go and see the Buddha Kassapa, if the legend about him having fulfilled the paramis for four incalculables (asaṅkhyeyya) and one hundred thousand aeons is true, then what use is it if it did not help him to avoid the denigration of the very embodiment of his supposedly buddhahood aspiration, the Buddha Kassapa? A similar account that exposes the dubiousness of fulfilling paramis is given by the venerable Mahāmoggalāna who was a Māra named Dūsi at the time of the Buddha Kakusandha in this aeon (see māratajjanīya sutta MN 50). According to the famous Theravadan commentary visuddhimagga, he had fulfilled paramis for one incalculable and one hundred thousand aeons, yet it could not help him to avoid reviling the very embodiment of his supposedly chief discipleship aspirations, the chief disciple of the Buddha Kakusandha named Vidhura. His fulfilling of paramis for one incalculable and one hundred thousand aeons could not restrain him from attacking the chief disciple Vidhura and going to hell on account of that attack in the very aeon he was to become the chief disciple under Buddha Gotama.

Contrary to the teachings on paramis that the succession of sammāsambuddhas is made up by those who have taken a bodhisatta vow to fulfill paramis in the past, the Buddha makes it clear in the chiggaḷayu sutta (SN 56.48), that the arising of Buddhas is by chance. The difficulty with which the anāgāmī Ghatikhara convinced his best friend Jotipala to go and visit the Buddha Kassapa, which enabled him to go forth under the Buddha Kassapa and most likely fulfill the kamma of giving the Dhamma offering and acting for the benefit of security from bondage of others to enable him to become a Buddha in his last birth, shows well how it is by chance that Buddhas arise. Had the anāgāmī Ghatikhara gave up on his persistence to convince his best friend Jotipala to go and visit the Buddha Kassapa, perhaps the Buddha Gotama would not have arisen here for his last birth and devas and humans would not have had the fortune of encountering his teachings.

So it is by chance, O bhikkhus, that one gains the human state, so it is by chance, O Bhikkhus, that a Tathagata arises in the world, the Arahant, the Supremely Awakened One, so it is by chance, O bhikkhus, that the Dhamma and Vinaya as proclaimed by the Tathagata shines in the world. For you, O bhikkhus, this human state has been obtained, and the Tathagata has arisen in the world, the Arahant, the Supremely Awakened One, and the Dhamma and Vinaya as proclaimed by the Tathagata shines in the world.

Therefore, O bhikkhus, an endeavour should be made [to realize]: “This is suffering;” An endeavour should be made [to realize]: “This is the origination of suffering;” An endeavour should be made [to realize]: “This is the cessation of suffering;” An endeavour should be made [to realize]: “This is the path leading to the cessation of suffering;”
–SN 56.48

Given the Buddhas arise by chance, it is very difficult to encounter the teaching of Buddhas as made clear in the dhammapada 182:

Difficult is the gaining of the human [state],
difficult is [long] life-span for humans;
difficult is the hearing of the true Dhamma,
difficult is the arising of Buddhas.
–Dhp 182

Given this difficulty, when one has encountered such a rare teaching of the Buddhas that can put an end to all suffering, but one is told by one’s tradition that one is not yet ready to put an end to suffering because one has not fulfilled the paramis prescribed by the tradition, if one adopts that view, then one becomes totally obstructed by such view and is unable to take advantage of such a rare opportunity to enter the path to liberation from all suffering.

It is as if one oppressed by thirst has come upon a cool and clear pool of water, but he is told he cannot quench his thirst now because he does not have the type of cup that is prescribed by the tradition for quenching his thirst, and so that poor victim of the tradition puts his efforts on acquiring the cup prescribed by his tradition and dies from thirst out of faith in his tradition. That is the worst form of being led astray from entering the path that leads to the cessation of suffering. In the Buddha’s time, the elder bhikkhus who praised those intent on companionship with their fellows in the life of purity were blamed by the Buddha for bringing about the ruination and vanquishing of those who lead the life of purity in the tatiyaovāda sutta (SN 16.8). Nowadays, if one were to rightly say:

Those leading the life of purity have been ruined by the ruination of those who lead the life of purity; those leading the life of purity have been vanquished by the vanquishing of those who lead the life of purity, it would be of those who are gullible to following the path of paramis that this can be rightly said. For those venerable ones live the life of purity defeated and handicapped by the view that they can only attain the fruits of the life of purity after fulfilling some paramis that they do not know and see.

As stated in the akkhaṇa sutta (AN 8.29), there is only one opportune time to take advantage of the Buddha’s teaching and to miss it because of the teachings of one’s tradition is rather unfortunate indeed:

Having gained the gain of human birth,
[when] the true Dhamma is well-proclaimed;
those who do not seize the opportunity,
they have let the opportunity pass them by.

[For] many indeed are said to be the inopportune times,
impediments for the path;
at some time or other in the world,
Tathagatas arise.

If one has an encounter of this,
that which is so difficult to gain in the world;
one has obtained human birth,
and the teaching of the true Dhamma;
so this is enough [incentive] to strive,
by a living being [seeking] his own welfare.

How can one understand true Dhamma,
surely do not let this opportunity pass by;
indeed having missed the opportunity,
they grieve consigned in hell.

For one in this world who just misses out,
on [entering] the fixed course of the true Dhamma;
will regret it for a long time,
like a merchant who has missed out on a profit.

A person enveloped in ignorance,
who has not succeeded in the true Dhamma;
will undergo birth and death for a long time,
the wandering on in saṃsāra.

But those who have attained the human state,
the well-proclaimed true Dhamma;
they heeded the advice there [in the true Dhamma],
or will do so, or are doing so.

Those who have entered upon the path,
well-proclaimed by the Tathagata;
have seized the opportunity in the world,
the unsurpassed life of purity.

Those who possess vision and are restrained,
guarded, ever mindful,
in that [Dhamma] taught by the Kinsman of the Sun;
they dwell not filled with desire.

Having cut off all underlying tendencies,
an arrow following one in Māra’s domain;
those who have attained the extinction of the asavas,
they have surely reached the end in the world.
–AN 8.29

Thus, when one has encountered such a rare opportunity, those proponents of paramis who convince one to postpone the pursuit of liberation to some future time in order to fulfill some paramis, are acting for the non-welfare of many people, for the unhappiness of many people, for the non-benefit of many people, for the suffering of devas and humans. 

Now let us suppose that a modern day buddhist who has taken a bodhisatta vow prescribed by his tradition in hopes to become a sammāsambuddha in the future, travels back in time to the Buddha to ask for advice on how to become a sammāsambuddha. He might word his question to the Buddha as follows:

sambodhigāmī, sambodhigāmī’ti, bhante, vuccati. katamaṃ nu kho bhante sambodhigāmī?

Leading to sambodhi, leading to sambodhi, O Bhante, it is said. What, O Bhante, is leading to sambodhi spoken of?

The potential answer is adapted from the kalyāṇasīla sutta (IT 97), where the Buddha defines kalyāṇadhammo as one who dwells devoted to the enculturation of the seven sets of bodhipakkhiyā (on the side of awakening) dhammas, which are also called the seven leading to sambodhi (satta sambodhigāmino).

satta sambodhigāmino’ti kho bhikkhu, sambodhigāmī’ti vuccati. katame satta? cattāro satipaṭṭhānā, cattāro sammappadhānā, cattāro iddhipādā, pañca indriyāni, pañca balāni, satta bojjhaṅgā, ariyo aṭṭhaṅgiko maggo. satta sambodhigāmino’ti kho bhikkhu, sambodhigāmī’ti vuccatī’ti.

The seven leading to sambodhi, O bhikkhu, is what leading to sambodhi is spoken of. What seven? The four establishments of mindfulness, the four right strivings, the four bases for psychic powers, the five faculties, the five powers, the seven awakening factors, the noble eight-fold path. The seven leading to sambodhi, O bhikkhu, is what leading to sambodhi is spoken of.

In the mahāparinibbana sutta (DN 16), the Buddha declares that the seven sets of bodhipakkhiyā dhammas are the dhammas that he realized by himself with supreme knowledge and teaches his ariya disciples to enculturate them with supreme knowledge in order to bring them to fulfillment for the attainment of sambodhi. Only sekhas and arahants possess the abhiñña (supreme knowledge) needed to enculturate the seven sets of bodhipakkhiyā dhammas as declared in the mūlapariyāya sutta (MN 1), and so that bhikkhu might not be fully satisfied with the Buddha’s answer because his tradition has taught him that fulfilling the seven sets of bodhipakkhiyā dhammas only lead to ordinary arahantship, not sammāsambuddha arahantship, and so he might ask the Buddha a further question thus:

But Bhante, the Auspicious One is the foremost of all beings. How can I also become the foremost of all beings? The Buddha would answer according to the lakkhana sutta that it is by undertaking the kamma of giving the Dhamma offering in a past life as a human that the Tathagata has become the foremost of all beings in his final birth. If you, bhikkhu, can strive for the breakthrough to the four noble truths to become a sekha who is well learned and virtuous, and teach the Dhamma that is auspicious in the beginning, auspicious in the middle, auspicious in the end, with the correct meaning and phrasing, proclaiming the life of purity that is utterly complete and pure, then you will be one of the three types of persons who are foremost of all beings in this very life (IT 84) as well as undertaking the kamma that will enable you to become the foremost of all beings in your final birth as human.

That bhikkhu might still not be fully satisfied with the Buddha’s answer because of his view about a separate path of paramis to buddhahood, and so might ask the Buddha a further question thus:

But Bhante, the Auspicious One helps others to attain security from bondage. How can I also help others to attain security from bondage? Again the Buddha would answer according to the lakkhana sutta that it is by undertaking the kamma of helping others to attain security from bondage in a past life as a human being that the Tathagata is able to help others to attain security from bondage in his final birth as a human being. If you, bhikkhu, can strive for the breakthrough to the four noble truths to become a sekha who is well learned and virtuous, and teach the Dhamma that is auspicious in the beginning, auspicious in the middle, auspicious in the end, with the correct meaning and phrasing, proclaiming the life of purity that is utterly complete and pure, then you will be helping others to gain security from bondage in this very life as well as undertaking the kamma that will enable you to help others to gain security from bondage in your final birth.

That bhikkhu might still not be fully satisfied with the Buddha’s answer because of his view about a separate path of paramis to buddhahood, and so might ask the Buddha a further question thus:

But Bhante, the Auspicious One possesses the Tathagata powers, possessing which he claims the place of the chief bull, roars his lion’s roar in the assemblies, and sets rolling the wheel of Brahma. How can I also come to possess the Tathagata powers? The Buddha would answer according to the sīhanāda sutta (AN 6.64) that the knowledge of the Tathagata powers is for one who has attained to samadhi, not for one who lacks samadhi, and remind the bhikkhu that his disciple Anuruddha possesses these powers as well (SN 52.15-24).

The bhikkhu would then be convinced that there is no separate path of paramis to buddhahood contrary to what his tradition has taught him. He would then straighten his view that his only chance of fulfilling his sammāsambuddha aspirations is to earnestly take advantage of what is left of the saddhamma, and follow the Buddha’s instructions to make the breakthrough to the four noble truths and become a sotāpannā in this life, so he can gain the assurance that he is destined for sambodhi. After becoming a sekha, if he is able to give the dhamma offering, help others to attain security from bondage, and is earnest in his striving for sambodhi but is not able to attain sambodhi or anāgāmī in this life, then it is possible that he will attain sammāsambodhi in his final birth.

In the pāsarāsi sutta (MN 26), the Buddha makes it clear that he undertook the search of the ariyas because he himself was subject to birth, old age and death, not because of a concern to free all beings as purported by some proponents of the path of paramis.

The great compassion of the Buddhas is born of sambodhi, not born of wishful aspirations or vows. In the uttiya sutta (AN 10.95), the Buddha shows this great compassion for beings by teaching the path he has discovered out of compassion for beings so they too can free themselves from suffering. He does not concern himself with whether the whole world or half the world will be free from suffering. He knows that whether the whole world or half the world or however many people will free themselves from suffering, all will do so by following the path he has declared. The Tathāgata only points out the path.

Suppose, O friend Uttiya, that a king’s border town would have a strong surrounding rampart with one door. There the gate keeper would be wise, competent, clever, one who keeps out those who are unknown, one who lets in those who are known. For him walking along the encircling path around the town on all sides, he would not see even so much as a gap in the wall or a crack in the wall large enough for a cat to slip through. It will occur to him: “Whatever gross living beings are entering or leaving this town, all those enter or leave only by this gate.”

So too, O friend Uttiya, for the Tathagata, that concern does not come to be thus: “The entire world will be emancipated by that, or half, or a third.” For the Tathagata, it occurs here thus: “Whoever in the world, were emancipated, or are emancipated, or will be emancipated, all of them, having abandoned the five hindrances, mental defilements that are weakeners of wisdom, having enculturated the seven awakening factors with a mind well established in the four establishments of mindfulness as it has come to be, were emancipated, or are emancipated, or will be emancipated, here in the world in this way.”
–AN 10.95

Similarly the venerable Sariputta declares in the sampasādanīya sutta (DN 28):

I, O Bhante, do not have knowledge of the minds of the arahants, supremely awakened Buddhas of the past, future or present. Nevertheless, the drift of the dhamma, O Bhante, is known by me. Suppose, O Bhante, that a king’s border town would have a strong surrounding rampart with one door. There the gate keeper would be wise, competent, clever, one who keeps out those who are unknown, one who lets in those who are known. For him walking along the encircling path around the town on all sides, he would not see even so much as a gap in the wall or a crack in the wall large enough for a cat to slip through. It will occur to him: “Whatever gross living beings are entering or leaving this town, all those enter or leave only by this gate.” So too, O Bhante, the drift of the dhamma is known by me. Whichever arahants, O Bhante, were supremely awakened Buddhas of the past, all those Auspicious Ones, having abandoned the five hindrances, mental defilements that are weakeners of wisdom, having enculturated the seven awakening factors with a mind well established in the four establishments of mindfulness, they supremely awakened to sambodhi.

Whichever arahants will be supremely awakened Buddhas in the future, all those Auspicious Ones, having abandoned the five hindrances, mental defilements that are weakeners of wisdom, having enculturated the seven awakening factors with a mind well established in the four establishments of mindfulness, they will supremely awaken to sambodhi. The Auspicious One too at present, O Bhante, the Arahant, the supremely awakened one, having abandoned the five hindrances, mental defilements that are weakeners of wisdom, having enculturated the seven awakening factors with a mind well established in the four establishments of mindfulness, has rightly awakened to sambodhi.
–DN 28

So the Buddha only points out the one and only door to the deathless that he has awakened to, unconcerned with whether the entire world or only a fortunate few passes through it. From these suttas, it is quite clear that there are no other paths to buddhahood outside of the path to sambodhi taught by all Buddhas, contrary to what the proponents of paramis claim.

This is the path of purification that leads to the attainment of sambodhi treaded by all the arahants designated as sammāsambuddhas and paccekabuddhas of the past. It is just the same path that all those who have made the breakthrough to the four noble truths and crossed over doubt tread. Without entering the plane of the ariyas as a saddhānusārī, dhammānusārī, or animittavihārī to enable the crossing over doubt about the four noble truths, such purification that leads to the attainment of sambodhi, and consequently attainment of buddhahood, is simply not possible, even if one roams about in saṃsāra fulfilling the six paramis of the Mahayana tradition, or the ten paramis of the Theravada tradition for countless incalculable aeons, as made clear in the āmagandha sutta (Snp 2.2):

Neither by no fish and meat, nor by fasting,
neither by nakedness, nor by shaven-head;
neither by matted locks, nor being caked in mud,
neither by rough antelope hide, nor by devotion to fire worship;
or even those in the world, who mortify themselves in many ways for the immortal,
neither by incantation and fire oblations, nor devotion to sacrifices and seasonal ascetic practices,
can purify mortals, who have not crossed over doubt.
–Snp 2.2